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December 30, 2007
The derogative falling of our educational standard is becoming uncontrollable, the pollution of our education by both stakeholders and students is now pointing towards the wrong direction. Our dependency on external technology results from our inability to purge out this menace.
Nigerians’ known with our emphases on certificate orientation [i.e. presentation of certificate for job or employment] is gradually killing our technology development. The certificate qualification orientation unknowing bedded in us [our nation], leads to many acquiring ?same? [certificate] by all means positively or negatively. All forms of misconduct and malpractices had and are still been introduced to achieve this eccentric menace [certificate]. our mind, which is part of that that control our taught, and action are channel toward the easiest way out of achieving this eccentric ‘goods’. The development of our intellectual capacity are derail due to the fact that stakeholders [Government, administrators, Teachers and students [parents] are primarily focusing on the end result of our education (certificate)].
I often wonder, ?Why is examination malpractice a psychological problem?? The growing menace of examination malpractice in our schools is becoming worrisome and disturbing phenomenon day after day. The problem is not peculiar to a particular level of education rather pervaded all educational facets in Nigeria. Primary, secondary, Tertiary or professional institutions of learning.
Of all educational problems in Nigeria, none poses a great threat than the issue of examination malpractice in schools. Also of public and stakeholders concern is the problem of how to effect improvement in the students performance so that the learning institutions and the public at large may not be saddle with the problem of half or ill-baked educated graduates both at the post-secondary and tertiary institutions of learning.
Undoubtedly, standards of performance at examination have declined considerably within the past ten years or there about. So also has every sectors of the societal development in the country. The most disturbing aspect of it all is the participation or involvement of school administrators, parents/Guardians, and examinations personnel. The rampant private and special centres for external examination like JAMB, West African Examination Council are part of stated involvement of non schools administrators. The Nigerian President states in Ozuma (2005) that by 2010 if educationalist and stakeholders do not pay adequate attention on the re-orientation and re-channelling of the youth at the post-primary schools to a more acceptable and drastic reduction in examination malpractices, the nation educational standard is bound to rut in pains. How one comes to acquire knowledge, what one comes to know and why such knowledge is possible are developed in [schools] learning cognitively, said Mbanefo (1998). Since what are acquiring during learning is faulty; we are then heading towards a faulty society. As it is know that learning goes hand in hand with malpractice and misconduct in Nigeria and other part of the world, the students cognition is derail and it is gradually killing our society.
EXAMINATION MALPRACTICE
The book: students Counselling (1981) argued that anxiety is one of the major problems of examination malpractice. He further suggested that educational programmes in examination stress management are needed to assist students in coping with examination anxiety. This statement above access the favour question that ?why is examination malpractice a psychological problems?? It tend to focus on the cognition of students development; that is their acquisition of interpretation, classification and remembering information, evaluation of ideas; inferring principles and deductions of rules, imagination of possibilities, generation of strategies fantasizing and dreaming.
The periodic test (evaluating) and measurement of students after such periodic acquisition of experience is know as examination argued Efe (1999), Salim (1999) also see examination as a systematic way of the content of a subject pupils or students have acquired after a given period of time by their teachers.
Examination malpractice involves various method employed by candidates to cheat during examinations. Usman (1994). While Sahman?s et al (1990) elaborates further and better that malpractice in examination as an unlawful behaviour or activity engaged by students to have personal advantage in an examination over their colleagues or mates who are competing in the same examination. Onfechere (1996) accepted this definition by further throw more light on it illegality that it is an unacceptable equally; an act or any act(s) of misconduct such as leakage, impersonation, writing on hidden part(s) of wares, encoding/decoding of the fingers for objectives tests, exchanges of question papers and answer booklets committed before, during or after the examination by either the students taking the examination or by officials assigned with the administration, evaluating or measuring the examination result.
Shonekan (1996) angrily view examination malpractices as act of omission or commission that contravenes those West AFrican Examination Council rules and regulations to the extents of undermining the validity and reliability of the test and ultimately the integrity of the certificates issues by West AFrican Examination Council. Dike (1996) from the psychological view said examination malpractice is all forms of cheating which directly or indirectly falsely the ability of the students. (Performance).
MANIFESTATION OF EXAMINATION MALPRACTICE IN NIGERIA
Examination malpractice is not a new phenomenon in Nigeria, as well as indeed in any part of the world. The first examination malpractice in Nigeria was reported in 1914, when there was a leakage of question paper into the senior Cambridge local examination; others traced the origin of examination malpractices to the wave of cancellation of Nigerian?s candidate paper in 1948 because it posses on history during the 1940 matriculation examination to the then ‘Yaba’ - nigeria technical (Soyele 1991). The most pronounce malpractice in Nigerian in early examination was that of 1964 that was tagged ?expo? subsequently in 1970,1973,1974,1979,1981,1988 and 1991 followed (Oladope 1997). Since 1991 to date examination has taken advance and more sophiticated dimensions, records are been emerged yearly indicating high or low percentage in examination malpractice in the Nationals core examination (external) West AFrican Examination Council and JAMB (Daily time 2005).
To expatiate this manifestation, Proff. Bello Salim (2002) JAMB registrar said that thirty out of one hundred and sixty-six examination towns were involved in cheating and malpractice while forty-five thousand four hundred and forty-eight candidates seeking University admission had their results cancelled in year 2002 because of examination malpractice.
Referring to the examination fraud in the country the Nigerian President, ‘Chief Olusegun Obasanjo’ said students? in the country perceived education as a means of getting a meal ticket and getting a job (Bello et as 2003); the President further argued that the perception or orientation must charge so that students would appreciate the intrinsic value of education, which is the total development of the individual to be able to make meaningful contributions to the family, community and the country at large.
TYPES AND FORMS OF EXAMINATION MALPRACTICE
A special article public by the West Africa Examination council on How to Pass in Examination (2005), where questions and answers on examination were discussed, The twelfth question is: WHAT IS EXAMINATION MALPRACTICES? Apart from other references made to the West AFrican Examination Council syllabus a list types of examination malpractices are listed as follows:
Candidates bringing books or cribs into the examination hall;
Insulting or assaulting any Supervisor or Invigilator;
Replacing their answer scripts with another one during or after the examination;
Swooping of scripts in an examination hall;
Impersonation
Taking part in mass or organized cheating in the examination hall or around it environ.
The ANCOPSS journal Volume 5, (1998) further contribute that one of the oldest and commonest method as listed above is the entry into the examination hall with cribs (microchips), writing on handkerchief/tights, there is also the strengthen of the neck like the giraffe to look at the neighbours work knowingly or unknowingly to the neighbours. And in the Eastern part of Nigeria, the use of hooligans, gaining entry into examination halls by force as examinations are in progress to remove question paper, then escape from the hall and later on throw in answered-pieces (of papers) to their candidates for them to copy; such case was reported in July 1990, Polytechnic, College of Education Examination in Nigeria - Nnewi centre. (Eze, 1991).2004 West AFrican Examination Council.
Dare (1994) identified plagiarism as a form of examination malpractice that should be investigated and punished in the same way as cheating in the examination hall. Plagiarism is the use of another person?s work without appropriate acknowledgement both in the text and in the references at the end of the work. He further add the under listed as other form of plagiarism: -
Copying laboratory and field work reports or item papers or both,
Colluding with a member of staff in order to submit a new prepared answer script as a substitute for the original script after an examination,
Writing of project(s), laboratory or filed report on behalf of a student(s) by a member of staff.
Secretly breaking into a staff office or departmental office in order to obtain questions papers and answer scripts is indicated as another form of examination malpractice that should be condemned argued Fawehimin (cf 2003).
Wollherm (cf 1996) views is from the inception of registration, he said asserted that manipulation of registration forms in order to sit for an examination, which the student is not qualified is also a form of examination malpractice. Others include colluding with a medical doctor in order to obtain dully-medical certificate on grounds of fringed illness producing a fake medical certificate.
Other advance method of text messages has been discovered and experimented, while we keep waiting on more unknown methods of examination malpractice stakeholders must hold their heads high to fight this menace headlock.
FACTOR RESPONSIBLE FOR EXAMINATION MALPRACTICE
Researchers on examination malpractice had argued and contributed to the basic factors responsible for examination malpractice in Nigeria, opinion and facts are gathered for this argument.
Aina (1991) and Aliyu et al (1991) agreed in their various submissions that the desire to pass at all cost is responsible for examination malpractice. The facts remain that Nigerian orientation on education is certificate and high-grade intensiveness, students, parents, school management tend to push harder on wards to get the certificate and good-grade by all ?means? to secure employment, others prefer to manipulate to be admitted in a choicest higher institution(s).
All this factors according to Denga (1993) are boiled down to four factors of: -
Psychological
Environmental
Intelligence
A) PSYCHOLOGICAL: - this includes all the stress, which is often induced in by parent, the peer pressure groups, and students; this they experience enormous stress and anxiety in trying to meet the various demand of subjects significantly. A study conducted by Drake (1941), Monday (1971) and Keller (1976) support this psychological reasons, that stress and anxiety experience by students during examination are conspicuous, thus, have been critised because students tend to develop undesirable habit (Ward 1981, Murphy 1988, Lamm 1984), Which normally led them to poorly prepared for examination(s) and subsequently exposed them in engaging in examination malpractice and misconduct. It should also be taken that psychological tremor of failure or scoring low grade promotes their involvement in examination malpractice and misconduct. This psychological factor also brings in Maslow?s motivational theories; which emphases the basic need i.e. physiological need of man, he argued that these needs motivate and enhance learning, that if students physiological needs are not physically meant it will affect their concentration in a teaching/learning situation, thereby preparing the students? cognition at a very low level and encourage students to engage in all sort of misconducts and malpractice during examinations.
B) ENVIRONMENT FACTOR: - this is another facxtor stated by Denga (1983) that basically led students/co-riders to examination malpractice and misconduct, the environmental factor include the crowded nature of our classroom/theatres as well as exanimation halls with few invigilators during examination. Teachers/Lecturers inability to cover up the stipulate syllabus, for the period been stated before an internal or external examinations, like promotional examination, WAEC, NECON or JAMB, obsolete and obscured instructional materials which are inadequate in the schools; may force some students to check even if they do not want to in an examination.
C) INTELLIGENCE FACTOR: - Adeloye (2004) in their book stated that the concept of individual difference must be built at the back of our mind when comparing academic competence, ability and comprehension from one student with another, the failure of students to recognize the fact that the IQ (Intelligent Quocent) differs and cannot be compare on is another factor; Thus, academically weak students will atime try to compare himself with naturally gifted student who is brilliant. When the weak-academic student are not able meet up with the challenge, the opt the ?missing? links with crisps or external help to pass their examination, this missing links are associated with misconcept and malpractices. Salim (1998) further elaborated this view from the psychological point; that be intelligent and been smart are two different concept or been academically gifted. Been smart means sly, ability to able been to handle situation with what is physically available within the limited time implies smart while intelligent involves your cognition and reaction to stimulus. A smart student may not be intelligent but can easily pass his/her examinations than an intelligent student
EXAMINATION MALPRACTICE ADVOCATES
From facts gathered as a result of this article, the advocates of examination malpractice are:
The students
The parents/Guardians
Schools? management and their staffs
Examination Officer(s)
These itemised advocates are strongly supported by Thomas Abbey (2005) in a workshop on examination malpractices and it effects.
The much importance attached to certificate in this country had made the advocates of education advocates and pro- examination malpractice. Professor Babs Fafunwa introduced the 6-3-3-4 system of education with the best intentions. Today, as a result of the crazy illusion attached to the worthless paper issued in Nigerian schools called certificates, the -3-3 aspect of the system has been tacify killed. What is left behind is 6-4; a practice where a student leaves secondary school and transfers to the tertiary school irrespective of his/her competence to execute and display the cognitive, psychomotor and affective responsibilities befitting a tertiary level students. The truth remain that most certificate flaunted and brandished by Nigerian Youths are obtained through dubious means. Who would blame the invigilator, WAEC, NECON or JAMB official, the parents or even the candidate for savouring this anti-intellectual, anti-progress, detractive means of achieving academic excellence? Each of these shareholders known that the political leadership is no less transparent than the invigilator.
Both examination officials and schools? staffs are aware that what accrues to them in terms of numeration cannot adequately cater for their basic needs or responsibilities, so they source for something by the wayside - it is a know fact that parents are aware that nobody asks questions about the quality of their wards? certificate. What matters is the production of the piece of paper when needed; the intellectual resourcefulness had been fed with negative orientation so much so that he believes the only avenue to success is to procure a certificate through hook or crook. The student is so much in a hurry to join the sickening debauchery being conducted by Nigeria?s elected ruler ship. I believes that the national examination bodies like JAMB, WAEC, NECON should discover the ?forces? driving secondary school students to ?special centre? where examination malpractice is organized and executed with the assistance of the staffs of these examination bodies, students? parents/guardians, a management and staffs of the school ?centre? and the students at the centre. These syndicates connive and get their selected candidates posted to one examination centre where ?they? bribe the supervisors and security operatives and cheat massively with experts in all the subjects. Some examination conducted for secondary school students; the school authorise buy over the supervisor and organize their teachers who solve the questions with multiple options and distributes to the students. As this research is going on, there are new wake up calls for students to come and register for this year?s JAMB, NECON, WAEC with these syndicates with ?GUARANTEED SUCCESS? - irrespective of whether you study or not. And believe it the students, parent are listening and ready to comply.
CAUSES OF EXAMINATION MALPRACTICE
The causes of examination malpractice are numerous as one encounter examination; different reasons are given to exhaunurate advocates from these acts. These exhaurations tend to expose the causes of examination malpractice. Maduka (2001) sees undue emphasis placed on certificate as one of the causes of examination malpractice in Nigeria. Maduka opined that the Nigeria society places too much emphasis on certificates obtained and examination passed on its own determinants. He further said that paper qualification and certificates serves as means of getting well paid jobs achievement of social status. This argument was strongly agreed to by Dr Tolofari (2006) a director in Rivers State information ministry, he agreed that ?we should realize that the certificate mentality is one of the rook causes of examination malpractice and fraud in Nigeria?. This also emphases the President?s statement; (2005) Obasanjo said students in Nigeria perceived education as a means of getting a meal ticket (certificate) and getting a job. As a result of this trend, morality and honesty have been thrown to the dogs to pass examination and obtain certificates so long as emphasis is not on ones performance but on the paper first. Many holders of certificates cannot practically defend them through their performance.
The economy is another causes of examination malpractice states Ahusa (1994) in a journal published and titled ?Students performance in Examination?. He asserted that due to the dwindling economic standard, low income to meet the ever growing human wants, teachers cum supervisor engages in misconduct and malpractice - these they do in exchange of money (bribe), gift items, contracts and other mouth-watery offers from either the candidates or their advocates. Akinyode (2004) agreed with the poverty levels of Nigerians as one of the causes of examination malpractice, he states that the world Bank and the International community?s assessment of the poverty level of Nigerians has moved from 40% in 1992 to 70% in 1996. This poverty level had injected almost all civil servants with virus called bribery. Bribery in our educational system has given birth to the monster called malpractices. These monsters are presently destroying our value of education and making nonsense of our certificates. Bribery in our institution of learning be it primary, secondary or tertiary will not produce the best brains in our society. Bribery would not produce the graduates who would stand tall away equals and who would go on to make tangible and lasting contributions to the advancement of humanity - supported Uwhejevwe -Togbolo (2005).
Fafunwa (1974) identifies another causes of lack of proper guidance and counselling programmes and added that some schools do not have guardian and counselling programmes for students - as such, students take courses without proper guardians; parents sometimes in their pride impose courses on their children not minding the capacity of the affective, cognition or psychomotor of the wards before the imposition. These kids are push too hard and too far thereby making them corrupt through engagement in malpractice and misconducts to please their parent(s) or parent(s) encouraging any form of misconducts or malpractices to justify their pride.
An article in Vanguard Newspaper (1999) carried a sketch of examination malpractice tat truancy and absenteeism made some students to be ill-prepared for examination, not because they absent themselves from schools and lectures but they do not know what others have been taught, some of the students are just lazy therefore they had to resort to examination malpractice as alternative therapy in their careers.
The quota system of admission in our Federal Schools is another factor uprooted by me as causes of examination, he observed that admitting unqualified candidates to meet geographical spread thus emergence of low performance, culminating in cheating or unconventional behaviour called examination malpractices.
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REFERENCE:
Adamu, M. [2001]. ?Examination Malpractice? A paper presented at the 4th Annual special and prize giving day ceremony of Federal Government College, Daura Katsina State.
Bernard, M.O. [1998]. Examination Malpractice in Tertiary Institution in Nigeria: Types, Causes, Effects and Solution. Unpublished.
Brinerd, C. [1978]. Piaget?s theory of intelligence. Englewood cliffs. NJ. Prentice-hall.
Castle, E.G. [1982]. Principles of Education for Teacher. Ibadan Evans Books.
Denga, D.I. [1981]. The effects of counselling on the Development of Self concept. Apillar students Education in Africa - Vol. 2 No.1 (1981)
Editorial Commentary. [1990]. ?Aiding Examination Malpractice. Daily Star. December 19 pg. 3
Gibbons, A. S., & Fairweather, P. G. (1998) Computer-Based Instruction: Design and Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Linus, H. [1999]. Scourge of Examination Malpractice in Public Examination. Success Magazine. Vol.1.
Mbanefo, I.M. [1998] INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (A Contemporary Approach). Onitsha. Onwubike Press ltd.
December 4, 2007
One of the foremost challenges facing counselling professionals is to understand the complex role that client diversity plays in their work. In counselling, each client’s needs and objectives need to be considered and used to guide the counselling process. These needs vary for each individual according to factors such as personality, culture, gender and age.
Counselling with Difference
It is vital that counsellors working with issues of difference recognise the unique needs of their client and plan intervention accordingly. The counsellor must decide on the approach that will provide better responsiveness from the client, and therefore lead to a constructive outcome.
The Impact of Prejudice on Self-Esteem
Clients affected by systems of inequity in our culture are frequently subjected to acts of discrimination and prejudice. Counsellors need to understand the impact of such in order to analyse the depth to which a client may be culturally traumatised. The impact of prejudice on self-esteem may evoke imbalances in a client’s wellbeing. They may experience feelings of being left out of the larger group, feelings of powerlessness, loneliness and hopelessness.
Furthermore, the risk of developing hatred against ‘opposing’ groups of the society can perpetuate negative behaviour - a kind of traumatic response to what has been perceived as a threat to the individual. Recognising value in the individual is part of the process of developing the client’s self-confidence through providing a supportive environment during counselling sessions.
A Case Study: Applied Stress Management
When working with clients with disabilities, counsellors usually face varied challenges according to each particular case. For this purpose, case studies provide valuable information about tools and strategies that have been used with a client.
In a recent case study of Applied Stress Management, a client with a disability was facing several stress problems, triggered by both internal and external factors. The client had a moderate intellectual impairment and cerebral palsy. He had good expressive and receptive language skills relating to familiar concepts. He also used a wheelchair to mobilise independently and worked in a supported employment setting on a full-time basis.
The client’s increasing stressful condition was related to the abusive behaviour of his flatmate; overweight issues affecting his self-esteem; and the ramification of these two main triggers into several other problems (inability to move over long distances due to fatigue, irritation due to mental impairment, incapacity of responding to the environment, etc).
Within the Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Approach, the following strategies were applied to help the client cope more effectively with the identified internal and external stressors:
(a) Relaxation Training (b) Affirmations (c) Creative Visualisations
Due to the client’s intellectual impairment the following strategies were also adopted to assist him to understand the process, goals and guidelines of counselling; and to learn and retain stress management skills:
Visual language systems
Such as using sign language or other symbols to convey shared meaning.
Audio taping
For learning and repetition of concepts and skills.
Rehearsal and Role Play
To allow for practice within the safety of the counselling environment.
Modelling
To demonstrate how a specific skill or technique may be utilised.
The client showed competence at using the visual calming system (a set of images used to diverge his attention from stressful situations) independently and reported reduced stress levels as a result of the system. After this, the client’s improvement was monitored in follow-up and discussion sessions. This is a classic example of the impact specific tools/strategies provide when applied by counsellors in order to assist clients with mental and/or physical challenges.
Conclusion
Effective counsellors develop a comprehensive awareness of their clients’ circumstances. This not only means becoming aware of the client’s immediate concerns, but also conceptualizing those concerns into the broader context of the client’s social and cultural environments.
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Pedro Gondim is a writer and publisher for the Australian Institute of Professional Counsellors. The Institute is Australia’s largest counsellor training provider, offering the internationally renowned Diploma of Professional Counselling.
Learn to Be a Counsellor.
Subscribe to our FREE eZine.
Counselling Connection Blog.
Author’s Note: I highly recommend Simon Clarke’s articles.
October 26, 2007
I’m just about to whack one of the sacred cows of the HR world, the Meyers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI) test, so if you’re a big fan of the MBTI you might want to quit now, or read on and flame me in the comments.
I’ll summarize the MBTI by saying that it’s a personality inventory test based on Jung’s theory of opposites. It assumes that there are four important components of a personality and that each is binary: either you are and introvert (I) or an extrovert (E). This means that the MBTI can assign you to one of sixteen personality types, based on your answers. The MBTI cult asserts that this personality type is very significant for who you can work well with, what jobs you’re suited for, who you should marry, and most other life decisions. You can read more about it here and here.
Is it clear to you that this is nonsense? Here are my observations:
- Jung’s theory of opposites was a psychoanalytic theory meant to diagnose and treat psychopathologies, not to categorize healthy people. And even within its realm, it’s now regarded only as a metaphor, not as a reliable personality model.
- As far as I know, the MBTI has never been validated to show that it actually measures what it claims to measure. Its correlations against other, more robust personality measurements are very weak.
- The questions of the MBTI yield a continuous quantitative value, but you are assigned to one category or another of a scale based on a seemingly arbitrary cutoff value. So, for instance, my score on the thinking/feeling scale is so close to the cutoff that I’m assigned to different categories depending on how I’m feeling when I take the test.
- I’ve seen plenty of introverts who can be quite extroverted when the situation calls for it, so whatever else it is, the MBTI isn’t a predictor of behavior.
Okay, if that were all of my objections I would just sneer at it as a badly designed psychometric instrument and forget about it. But the world in general, and industry in particular, has siezed on the MBTI as the key to personality and compatibility. So I have personally seen:
- Qualified candidates not hired because ‘they have the wrong personality profile for the job.’
- People denied promotions because ‘their personality wouldn’t fit the executive team.’
- People moved from software development projects to software quality assurance (testing and bug fixing) because ‘their personalities are more suited to that kind of work.’
I’m not laying these outrages at the feet of the MBTI, it’s idiot managers and HR staff who are to blame for misusing it. But the structure of the MBTI is so simple that it seems irresistable to assign people to pigeonholes from which they can never escape because, presumeably, their personality type is fixed.
So personally, I recommend that you stop using the MBTI and that we burn all copies of it, but I know I’ve got a big chip on my shoulder. If you feel you have to rely on it, you should at least combine it with another, better validated, instrument like the Strong Inventory, or use it simply as a starting point for discussion and don’t take it seriously as a personality measure, or combine it with your intuitive appraisal of someone’s personality.
But for heaven’s sake, don’t stamp a person’s MBTI score on his or her forehead and let it determine the trajectory of their career.
Okay, I’m done with the rant and you can start throwing sticks and stones if you want.
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About the Author
Bruce Taylor is the Owner and Principle of Unison Coaching, and provides corporate and executive coaching to a wide variety of businesses including engineering, human resource, consulting, and recruiting firms. Mr Taylor has extensive background in Psychology, Human Resources, and Software Engineering. He holds a Masters degree in Computer Science from Duke University, a Masters in Psychology from the University of Massachusetts, and a Certificate in Job Stress and Healthy Workplace Design from the University of Massachusetts. He can be reached at http://www.unisoncoaching.com or bruce_taylor@unisoncoaching.com
September 25, 2007
What are the personal qualities associated with being an effective Counsellor? Counselling theorists and researchers have given this question much attention and research has identified a framework of personal skills which are shared among highly effective counsellors, despite their theoretical orientation.
Self-awareness helps counsellors to understand their client’s needs and separate those from personal orientations. Being introspective and in touch with their own issues improves their ability to recognise strengths and weaknesses and to accept them. Self awareness includes the ability to acknowledge your personal values and beliefs, and the potential they may have on your interactions with others.
Effective counsellors are open-minded. They are aware of their own personal values and at the same time must be able to resist forcing their values on clients. This means that counsellors are deeply appreciative and accepting of human differences and do not need to impose their values on others.
Risk-taking means individuals are willing to be vulnerable and take interpersonal risks. Effective counsellors do not hide behind a professional fa?ade. They are willing to be honest and direct with others and are free to challenge clients when appropriate.
Effective counsellors are also able to develop sincere, warm and deep relationships with others. They can prize other individuals - their feelings, their opinions, their persons. This feeling is caring, but non-possessive caring, with little evaluation or judgment.
Transparency involves allowing others to see you as you are. This characteristic results in an attitude of realness or genuineness. Transparency helps to create authentic, honest connections with others, which is the key to effective counselling.
Finally, responsibility for their own actions and behaviours is an important characteristic of effective counsellors. Rather than denying the way they are and blaming others, they can grow from failures and acknowledge their weaknesses.
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Pedro Gondim is a writer and publisher for the Australian Institute of Professional Counsellors. The Institute is Australia’s largest counsellor training provider, offering the internationally renowned Diploma of Professional Counselling.
Learn to Be a Counsellor.
Subscribe to our FREE eZine.
Counselling Connection Blog.
Author’s Note: I highly recommend Simon Clarke’s articles.
Have you ever found yourself involved in an ethical dilemma? Even if you are not a counsellor or mental health professional, it is most likely that at some stage of your life, you have been directly or indirectly involved in a situation in which ethical conduct was to be considered.
The growth and standardisation of service industries, as well as the increasing awareness and obligation imposed by Privacy legislation, has led to the development of codes of conduct designed to protect both sides of the professional relationship - particularly the interests of clients. In counselling, ethical conduct is not only expected, but in many cases, is required by legislation.
So how does ethical conduct apply to the counselling relationship? Basically, ethics in counselling is comprised of two areas: confidentiality and professional ethics.
Confidentiality
‘For counselling to be maximally effective, the client must feel secure in the knowledge that what they tell the counsellor is to be treated with a high degree of confidentiality. In an ideal world a client would be offered total confidentiality so that they would feel free to openly explore with the counsellor the darkest recesses of their mind, and to discuss the most intimate details of their thoughts.’ (Geldard & Geldard, 1998)
It is recommended that counsellors discuss confidentiality issues with clients before the counselling relationship is established. In most cases, the counsellor will tell the client that their relationship will be relatively confidential. Relative confidentiality is required in order to improve the quality of the service, as on many occasions, the counsellor may have to: discuss session details with supervisors, exchange valuable information with other professionals, or maintain notes and formal records of every session that has occurred. Furthermore, there are legal issues involving confidentiality: if a court order is issued, the counsellor must release personal records in order to comply with legislation. This can be a very sensitive matter, especially when the counsellor acquires knowledge that a client is dangerous and may put other lives at risk. These dilemmas are faced by many counsellors working in prisons, or with aggressive and potentially dangerous clients.
‘While I worked for Drug Arm as a Project Officer for a programme called HART (Home Assessment Response Team), my role was to visit people in their own homes, who were affected by substance misuse challenges. Sometimes their home was within the confines of Community Correction Centres. Because confidentiality was stretched sometimes at certain stages of their imprisonment, I would strongly recommend to my clients that it would be preferable for them not to mention names or dates so that I would not have that unnecessary information (and evidence) to cause them harm should there ever be the need to have my duty to report or disclose some evidence of a particular situation, challenged.’
(Kathleen Casagrande - Professional Counsellor)
Due to such situations, some counsellors even affirm that promising absolute confidentiality is unethical. The following are common aspects of a counselling relationship which prevent counsellors from providing absolute confidentiality to their clients:
- Keeping records of sessions and client’s personal data;
- Release of information to Supervisors;
- Protection of third persons from endangering situations;
- Court orders or similar law enforcement issues which require information disclosure.
Professional Ethics
Because counselling is not a regulated profession in many countries (including Australia), the use of a professional code of ethics is a method of guiding the quality of the services provided by counsellors, the quality of training provided to counsellors, and protecting clients. These codes provide conduct guidelines for professionals and are an effective way to provide practice standards to many counsellors lacking experience or knowledge of the industry. It also serves the purpose of structuring the counselling industry, providing common professional descriptions, definitions and service boundaries according to each type of counsellor.
The Australian Counselling Association is one industry association in Australia that provides ethical guidelines and a code of conduct for counsellors. The ACA’s Code of Ethics and Code of Practice are part of the Code of Conduct - which can be accessed from their website at www.theaca.net.au/docs/code_conduct.pdf.
Complying with ethical guidelines is one of the most important aspects of being a professional counsellor. Creating awareness in both counsellor and clients of the boundaries of the services provided will lead to a better development of the profession, and overall improvement of industry standards. Counsellors are responsible for keeping up-to-date with professional codes of ethics, confidentiality guidelines, and other relevant information.
Reference List
Geldard. D. & Geldard K., 1998. Basic Personal Counselling, 4th edition, Frenchs Forest, Prentice Hall.
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Pedro Gondim is a writer and publisher for the Australian Institute of Professional Counsellors. The Institute is Australia’s largest counsellor training provider, offering the internationally renowned Diploma of Professional Counselling.
Learn to Be a Counsellor.
Subscribe to our FREE eZine.
Counselling Connection Blog.
Author’s Note: I highly recommend Simon Clarke’s articles.
September 24, 2007
‘Therapy (in Greek: θεραπεία) or treatment is the attempted remediation of a health problem, usually following a diagnosis.’ (WIKIPEDIA)
In the context of mental health, therapy has vastly changed over time. Long before the scientific approach to the treatment of mental health prevailed, attempts to discover the underpinnings of the human mind produced a wide range of therapies and theories. For many centuries, the therapeutic approach to the human mind was mostly based on supernatural and religious beliefs.
This approach began to change when Phillipe Pinel, in 1793, introduced his methods in Paris. Pinel believed that switching from a commonly violent and medicine-based treatment to a strictly non-violent and observational approach could produce a better outcome for patients. At this point, the history of the counselling therapy had begun to be shaped.
Therapy in Counselling
The general concept of therapy has its differentiations from the counselling approach to therapy. In counselling, providing therapy does not mean providing a cure to a patient’s illness. Counselling’s general objective is to help improve the client’s quality of life, and in many instances that could mean to simply explore a relationship issue or the perception towards oneself. The varied types of counselling therapies reflect many approaches to solve similar issues - and these approaches can work differently depending on the individual. In order to better understand this concept, we’ve gathered some information about some counselling treatments used nowadays.
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy
CBT is an insight-focused therapy that emphasises recognising and changing negative thoughts and maladaptative beliefs. The approach is based on the theoretical rationale that the way people feel and behave is determined by how they perceive and structure their experience. CBT proposes that change comes about by changing the client’s thinking about the situation. Once the client has converted his/her point of view, the problem-perception switches to a clearer context. Some basic concepts within the CBT schools of thought include:
Arbitrary Inferences: refers to making conclusions without supporting and relevant evidence. This includes ‘catastrophising’, or thinking of the absolute worst scenario and outcomes for most situations.
Selective Abstraction: consists of forming conclusions based on isolated details of an event (and ignoring other information).
Overgeneralisation: a process of holding extreme beliefs on the basis of a single incident and applying them inappropriately to dissimilar events or settings. Personalisation is a tendency for individuals to relate external events to themselves, even when there is no basis for making this connection.
Labelling or mislabelling: involves portraying one’s identity on the basis of imperfections and mistakes made in the past and allowing them to define one’s true identity.
The Gestalt Therapy
An existential/phenomenological approach based on the premise that individuals must be understood in the context of their ongoing relationship with the environment. Gestalt proposes that change comes about by the client being aware of what he/she is experiencing and resolving the situation. Gestalt promotes direct experience and testing in order to adapt to the environment; express different behaviour; and instigate awareness of action and further responsible recognition of the results. Some basic concepts of the Gestalt approach include:
Holism: all nature is seen as unified and as a coherent whole, and the whole is different from the sum of its parts.
Field Theory: the organism must be seen in its environment, or in its context, a part of the constantly changing field.
The Field-Formation Process: it describes how the individual organises the environment from moment to moment. The figure-formation process tracks how some aspect of the environmental field emerges from the background and becomes the focal point of the individual’s attention and interest.
Organismic Self-Regulation: The figure-formation process is intertwined with the principle of ‘Organismic self-regulation’, a process by which equilibrium is ‘disturbed’ by the emergence of a need, a sensation, or an interest. Gestalt therapists direct the client’s awareness to the figures that emerge from the background during a therapy session and use the figure-formation process as a guide for the focus of the therapeutic work.
Person-Centred Therapy
Person-Centred Therapy is ‘an approach to helping individuals and groups in conflict. A clearly stated theory (developed by psychologist Carl R. Rogers), accompanied by the introduction of verbatim transcriptions of psychotherapy, stimulated a vast amount of research on a revolutionary hypothesis: that a self-directed growth process would follow the provision and reception of a particular kind of relationship characterised by genuineness, non-judgemental caring, and empathy.’ (Corsini 1995).
In Person-Centred therapy, the focus is on the client. The objective is to achieve progress by self-directed growth, emphasizing on the ‘here-and-now’ of the individual’s life. This emphasis on the present replaces the diagnostic perspective in counselling. Here, individuals are not products of their past experiences - instead, they are able to determine what is right for them (self-diagnosis and remediation). The person-centred approach is intrinsic to most therapies as it aims to establish an affective relationship between client and counsellor.
Solution-Focused Therapy
This therapeutic focus is on exploring the client’s perspective towards a problem. The client is assisted to develop a different perspective towards the future, and through that perspective, work on their current situation. The goal-driven process is similar to coaching - the counsellor’s role is to build initial rapport and then use questioning techniques to direct the process of therapy (in order to enhance the client’s understanding of his/her strengths and successes in already overcoming his/her problems). The solution-focused approach can be defined in five different stages: describing the problem, developing well-formed goals, exploring for exceptions, end-of-session feedback, and evaluating client progress.
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Pedro Gondim is a writer and publisher for the Australian Institute of Professional Counsellors. The Institute is Australia’s largest counsellor training provider, offering the internationally renowned Diploma of Professional Counselling.
Learn to Be a Counsellor.
Subscribe to our FREE eZine.
Counselling Connection Blog.
Author’s Note: I highly recommend Simon Clarke’s articles.
August 27, 2007
Improving overall cognitive capability is becoming as simple as consuming a pill…
An interesting paradox has been the axis of much attention in the fields of pharmacy, brain research and ethics in the last few years. The advent of new technologies, particularly in the field of brain research, has induced scientists to improve the treatment of several conditions, such as Alzheimer?s disease, sleep disorders and dementia. However, what was primarily intentioned to provide solutions for patients with cognitive deficits has also proven functional for healthy people ? not only functional, but quite efficient.
The human brain consists of 100 billion neurons linked in around 100 trillion connections. This large number is possibly due to the parallel nature of brain connections, and the multi-layered strucuture in which our most notable organ is organised. New classes of drugs - particularly ?Ampakines? - are exploring ways to achieve cognitive improvements whilst moderating the incidence of side effects. Albeit designed for combating the effects of degenerative diseases, these cognitive enhancers have increasingly gained popularity as a competitive advantage for students, executives and people who simply want to exceed their own limitations.
Ampakines
Ampakines are a class of drugs which name is originated from the AMPA receptor (protein). These receptors play a major role in the encoding of many types of memory and in inducing excitatory communication in the brain (which increases levels of glutamate-mediated communication). Because glutamate is our predominant neurotransmitter, drugs which manipulate the levels of glutamate can considerably improve cognitive skills by improving neural communication.
?Nerve cells (neurons) in the brain communicate with each other by releasing small molecules know as neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters bind to proteins, called receptors, located on the surface of the receiving neurons. This binding then triggers subsequent cellular events in these neurons? (Cortex Research (www.cortexpharm.com/html/research/tech.html)).
Ampakines can provide a variety of results, often improving cognitive functions such as attention, alertness and memory.
No Need for Disease
The potential for improving memory, concentration and other important cognitive skills has been initially observed by pharmaceutical companies and military research. Nowadays, most large drug producers in the world are on their way to test Ampakines, and other ?cognitive enhancing? drug types. The military has performed several trials and it is particularly interested in the alertness effects of Ampakines, such as CX717 (developed by Cortex Pharmaceuticals). This drug could be a solution for jet pilots or special operation forces to remain alert for several days during combats ? no need for much sleep, and apparently very few side effects (unlike amphetamines, caffeine and other substances which were commonly used for such purpose). At this stage, the general public has also become aware of the ?wonders? of such drugs, and the popularity among students, executives and other professionals has increased immensely - such that many are diagnosed with some ?broad-diagnosing? diseases in order to obtain medical scripts for purchase. Consumers also use diagnosed friends to access the medicines, buy it from the internet under false allegations, or simply opt for the black market.
Other drug types, such as Mem compounds, are also being developed and undertaking trials. Although the pharmaceutical companies are producing these drugs for the treatment of varied mental conditions, it is increasingly noticeable that their popularity among superman-aspirants is producing a significant raise in revenue for major producers. Along with the expected advances in technology, ethical issues are stirring among specialists ? are these drug cocktails really a good option to achieve better performance?
Future or Science Fiction?
This question is multi-faceted and particularly interesting. However, there may not be a long-term need for such discussion. Progressive development in brain research over the last few years is inducing many experts and scientists to reach for new paradigms. The exponential growth of technology is allowing brain scanning techniques to become quite powerful, and this has been used to initiate a series of cross-discipline experiments ? such as the use of nanotechnology and reverse engineering in brain research.
But it does not stop there. Currently, a project entitled the ?Human Connectome? (cited in a previous article) is attempting to create a 4-dimensional map of all brain functions, while advances in physics will eventually allow further access to the mysteries of the human mind. With that in mind, experts such as Ray Kurzweil ? author and scientist ? predict that the human cognitive capacity will achieve enormous progress through a mix of gene manipulation and the use of artificial systems input (such as nanotechnology). These artificial systems would act as regenerative tools for damaged cells and tissues, neural communication enhancers (by converting analog communication into digital ? thus achieving much higher processing speeds), and many other purposes. The advent of such technologies could convert pills and doses into obsolete cognitive tools.
In the end, the quest for superman-cognition is a matter of patience as much research is either incomplete, or uncertain. Indeed we are stepping in a new era ? but the outcomes of this experience are still beyond the grasp of our human civilization.
Did You Know?
1) ?The Brain?s circuits are very slow. Synaptic-reset and neuron-stabilization times (the amount of time required for a neuron and its synapses to reset themselves after the neuron fires) are so slow that there are very few neuron-firing cycles available to make pattern-recognition decisions. Functional magnetic-resonance imaging (fMRI) and magneto-encephalography (MEG) scans show that judgements that do not require resolving ambiguities appear to be made in a single neuron-firing cycle (less than twenty milliseconds), involving essentially no iterative (repeated) processes. Recognition of objects occurs in about 150 milliseconds, so that even if we ?think something over?, the number of cycles of operation is measured in hundreds or thousands at most, not billions, as with a typical computer.?
(Ray Kurzweil ? ?The Singularity is Near?, 2005, page 150)
2) ?Approximately 20% of the blood flowing from the heart is pumped to the brain. The brain needs constant blood flow in order to keep up with the heavy metabolic demands of the neurons. Brain imaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) rely on this relationship between neural activity and blood flow to produce images of reduced brain activity.?
(http://www.brainetwork-usm.org)
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Pedro Gondim is a writer and publisher for the Australian Institute of Professional Counsellors. The Institute is Australia’s largest counsellor training provider, offering the internationally renowned Diploma of Professional Counselling.
Learn to Be a Counsellor.
Subscribe to our FREE eZine.
Counselling Connection Blog.
Author’s Note: I highly recommend Simon Clarke’s articles.
July 8, 2007
White Noise is not actually ?noise? it is a random signal with a flat power spectral. It is a sound frequency or a signal that one hears as a gentle hiss, similar to the sound of wind rustling through trees, a waterfall, radio static or the ocean turf. It is purely a theoretical construct. To use a simple analogy, the color white contains the whole spectrum of colors of light. Similarly white noise is created by using the entire spectrum of frequencies, the human ear can hear.
White Noise can help a person relax or work as a sleep aid. Life is full of disruptive sounds and noises, such as honking of cars, barking of dogs, noisy neighbors, annoying snoring and screaming sirens. White noise does not add to the clamor of noise instead white noise contains equal frequencies of all sounds. Research has shown that a steady, monotonous stream of the same peaceful sound, such as white noise, can filter and mask distracting noises. This gentle continuous sound promotes a calm mood to help you relax and/or fall asleep.
The benefit of white noise for anyone is that it can help lessen the noisy distractions of one’s physical environment. That’s why it’s used to help people relax, sleep, and concentrate better. Different sights and sounds within their surroundings more easily distract individuals with ADD/ADHD, hyperactivity, impulsiveness and other similar disabilities. By masking or canceling out extraneous sounds, white noise can be a very effective part of an overall program to promote greater focus, concentration, and productivity, as well as improved interpersonal behavior.
White noise is often recommended as a behavior modification tool, to help manage your pets’ behavior, especially to relax them. Many dog owners play white noise as an anti-bark control to stop their dogs from incessant barking at loud noises or if they’re suffering from separation anxiety or fear. White noise also helps comforts your scared or nervous pet, especially if it’s experiencing some form of pet phobia. And, pets love to fall asleep to white noise, just like humans!
White noise can be obtained in different formats such as ocean waves and the wind. Of course, these are not the real ocean waves and wind but pure white noise in the soothing rhythmic pattern of waves or the dynamic intensity of the wind.
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June 16, 2007
Back Ground and Development
Being a former student of Freud, Viktor Frankl has a psycholanalyical orientation, however, he was influenced by the writing of existential philosophers like Heidegger, Scheler, and Jaspers. Frankl begin to develop his own existential philosophy and therapeutic technique. To avoid confusion with Bingswanger’s existential analysis, Frankl coined the term Logotherapy. According to Frankl, Logotherapy proceeds from the spirtual, while existential analysis proceeds toward the spirtual.
Frankl first book was published in 1946 in the German language and translated into English in 1959, under the title From Death Camp to Existentialism. This book was later revised to include the basic concepts of Logotherapy, and re-distributed in 1962, under the title Man’s Search for Meaning.
Philosophy and Concepts
Frankl believes that even under the extreme physical and psychological stress of the concentration camp man can preserve his spiritual freedom of independence of mind. He can decide what shall become of him mentally and sparitually. It is this sparitual freedom that cannot be taken away. Furthermore, according to Frankl, if there is meaning to life there is also meaning to suffering, since suffering, like death, is an inescapable part of life.
The Nature of the Person
The individual is a unity consisting of three aspects: the body, the mind, and the sparit. The first two are closely related and together form the psychophysicum through the teaching of Freud, Adler, and Jung we have a working understanding of the mind and body, but have neglected the spiritual side of human dimension. Logotherapy focus on this third dimension, the spiritual man. Spirituality is the chief attribute of the individual, and from it derives conscience, love, and aesthetic conscience. The second characteristics of human existence is freedom. Being human, is being able to decide. Man is free to decide what he will be in the next instant. Freedom means freedom on three levels: the instant, the inherited disposition, and the environment. True, human being are influence by all these factors, but they are free to accept or reject and to take a stand toward these conditions.
Man does not simply exist, he decides what his existance will be. Since man can rise above biological, psychological, and sociological conditions, on which predictions are based, they are individually unpredictable. The third factor of individual existence is responsibility. The individual’s freedom is not only freedom from but freedom to something, and this according to Frankl, is the individual’s responsibilities. Logotherapy tries to make the client fully aware of his/her own responsibilities; they must decide for what, to what or to whom, they understand to be responsible.
Motivation
The primary motivation is the individual is not the will to pleasure or the will to power, but the will to meaning. It is this that most deeply inspires man, that is the most human phenomenon of all, since an animal certainly never worries about the meaning of its existance. Meaning is not invented by human being, but is discovered by them. Man gives meaning to their lives by realizing creative values, by achieving tasks. Human being realize values by their attitudes toward destained, or inescapable suffering.
These are attitudinal values and the possibility for their realization exist until the last moment of life, suffering thus has meaning. The will to meaning is not a driving force in the psychodynamic sense. Values of itself does not drive a man, they do not push him, but rather pull him. They involve choices or decisions, man is not driven to moral behavior; in each instance he decides to behave morally. He does so for the sake of a cause in which he commits himself, or for a person he loves or for the sake of his God.
The Existential Vacum and Existential Frustration
This existential vacum manifests itself mainly in a state of boredom. For example, the Sunday Neurosis the kind of depression which afflicts people who become aware of the emptiness of their lives once the rush of the busy week is over and the void within themselves become manifest. Existential frustrations is the frustration of the will to meaning. This frustration is sometime vicariously compensated for by a will to power or by the will to pleasure. Often existential frustration result in sexual compensation. We can observe that the sexual libido becomes rampant in the existential vacum.
Existential frustration is not pathological or pathogenic, not every conflict is necessary neurotic, suffering is not always a pathological phenomenon. The search for meaning may lead to tension rather than equilibrium, but each tension is not pathological it is rather an indispensable prerequisite of mental health.
The Nature of Neuroses and Psychoses
Although existential conflicts may exist without neurosis, every neurosis has an existential aspect. Neurosis are grounded in the four basically didderent dimensions of man’s being the physical, the psychological, the societal, and the existential or spiritual. For example, Noegenic neuroses do not emerge from conflicts between drives and instincts, but rather from conflicts between various values, in other words, from moral conflicts, and spiritual problems.
Frankl believe that the collective neurosis is characteristics of four symptoms: (1) modern man day to day attitude toward life, (2) man’s fatalistic attitude toward life, (3) man’s collective thinking, and the final symptom is fanaticism. Ultimately, all four symptoms can be traced back to man’s fear of responsibility and his escape from freedom.
Dr. William Smith is a psychologist, psychotherapist, and consultant with many years experience working with individuals and couples addressing all types of personal issues. If you are searching for meaning in your life; contact Dr. Smith at, http://www.insightconsultant.com for further information and a FREE initial assessment.
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